UNIX PROGRAMMER'S MANUAL
Second Edition
K. Thompson
D. M. Ritchie
June 12, 1972
c
Copyright 1972
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.
No part of this document may be reproduced,
or distributed outside the Laboratories, without
the written permission of Bell Telephone Laboratories.
PREFACE
to the Second Edition
In the months since this manual first appeared, many changes have
occurred both in the system itself and in the way it is used.
Perhaps most obviously, there have been additions, deletions, and
modifications to the system and its software. It is these
changes, of course, that caused the appearance of this revised
manual.
Second, the number of people spending an appreciable amount of
time writing UNIX software has increased. Credit is due to
L. L. Cherry, M. D. McIlroy, L. E. McMahon, R. Morris, and
J. F. Ossanna for their contributions.
Finally, the number of UNIX installations has grown to 10, with
more expected. None of these has exactly the same complement of
hardware or software. Therefore, at any particular installation,
it is quite possible that this manual will give inappropriate in-
formation. One area to watch concerns commands which deal with
sepcial files (I/O devices). Another is places which talk about
such things as absolute core locations which are likely to vary
with the memory configuration and existence of protection hard-
ware. Also, not all installations have the latest versions of
all the software. In particular, the assembler and loader have
just undergone major reorganization in anticipation of a UNIX for
the PDP-11/45.
INTRODUCTION
This manual gives descriptions of the publicly available features
of UNIX. It provides neither a general overview (see "The UNIX
Time-sharing System" for that) nor details of the implementation
of the system (which remain to be disclosed).
Within the area it surveys, this manual attempts to be as com-
plete and timely as possible. A conscious decision was made to
describe each program in exactly the state it was in at the time
its manual section was prepared. In particular, the desire to
describe something as it should be, not as it is, was resisted.
Inevitably, this means that many sections will soon be out of
date. (The rate of change of the system is so great that a dis-
mayingly large number of early sections had to be modified while
the rest were being written. The unbounded effort required to
stay up-to-date is best indicated by the fact that several of the
programs described were written specifically to aid in prepara-
tion of this manual!)
This manual is divided into seven sections:
I. Commands
II. System calls
III. Subroutines
IV. Special files
V. File formats
VI. User-maintained programs
VII. Miscellaneous
Commands are programs intended to be invoked directly by the
user, in contradistinction to subroutines, which are intended to
be called by the user's programs. Commands generally reside in
directory /bin (for binary programs). This directory is searched
automatically by the command line interpreter. Some programs
classified as commands are located elsewhere; this fact is indi-
cated in the appropriate sections.
System calls are entries into the UNIX supervisor. In assembly
language, they are coded with the use of the opcode "sys", a syn-
onym for the trap instruction.
A small assortment of subroutines is available; they are de-
scribed in section III. The binary form of most of them is kept
in the system library /usr/lib/liba.a.
The special files section IV discusses the characteristics of
each system "file" which actually refers to an I/O device.
The file formats section V documents the structure of particular
kinds of files; for example, the form of the output of the loader
and assembler is given. Excluded are files used by only one com-
mand, for example the assembler's intermediate files.
User-maintained programs (section VI) are not considered part of
the UNIX system, and the principal reason for listing them is to
indicate their existence without necessarily giving a complete
description. The author should be consulted for information.
The miscellaneous section (VII) gathers odds and ends.
Each section consists of a number of independent entries of a
page or so each. The name of the entry is in the upper right
corner of its pages, its preparation date in the upper left. En-
tries within each section are alphabetized. It was thought bet-
ter to avoid running page numbers, since it is hoped that the
manual will be updated frequently. Therefore each entry is num-
bered starting at page 1.
All entries have a common format.
The name section repeats the entry name and gives a very
short description of its purpose.
The synopsis summarizes the use of the program being de-
scribed. A few conventions are used, particularly in the
Commands section:
Underlined words are considered literals, and are typed
just as they appear.
Square brackets ([]) around an argument indicate that the
argument is optional. When an argument is given as
"name", it always refers to a file name.
Ellipses "..." are used to show that the previous
argument-prototype may be repeated.
A final convention is used by the commands themselves.
An argument beginning with a minus sign "-" is often tak-
en to mean some sort of flag argument even if it appears
in a position where a file name could appear. Therefore,
it is unwise to have files whose names begin with "-".
The description section discusses in detail the subject at
hand.
The files section gives the names of files which are built
into the program.
A see also section gives pointers to related information.
A diagnostics section discusses the diagnostics that may be
produced. This section tends to be as terse as the diagnos-
tics themselves.
The bugs section gives known bugs and sometimes deficien-
cies. Occasionally also the suggested fix is described.
The owner section gives the name of the person or persons to
be consulted in case of difficulty. The rule has been that
the last one to modify something owns it, so the owner is
not necessarily the author. The owner's nicknames stand
for:
ken K. Thompson
dmr D. M. Ritchie
jfo J. F. Ossanna
rhm R. Morris
doug M. D. McIlroy
lem L. E. McMahon
llc L. L. Cherry
csr C. S. Roberts
These nicknames also happen to be UNIX user ID's, so mes-
sages may be transmitted by the mail command or, if the ad-
dressee is logged in, by write.
At the beginning of this document is a table of contents, orga-
nized by section and alphabetically within each section. There
is also a permuted index derived from the table of contents.
Within each index entry, the title of the writeup to which it
refers is followed by the appropriate section number in parenthe-
ses. This fact is important because there is considerable name
duplication among the sections, arising principally from commands
which exist only to exercise a particular system call.
This manual was prepared using the UNIX text editor ed and the
formatting program roff.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. COMMANDS
: ............................ place label
acct ......................... get connect-time accounting
ar ........................... archive (combine) files
as ........................... assembler
bas .......................... BASIC dialect
cat .......................... concatenate (or print) files
cc ........................... compile C program
chdir ........................ change working directory
check ........................ check consistency of file system
chmod ........................ change access mode of files
chown ........................ change owner of files
cmp .......................... compare file contents
cp ........................... copy file
date ......................... get date and time of day
db ........................... symbolic debugger
dc ........................... desk calculator
df ........................... find free disk space
dpd .......................... spawn data-phone daemon
ds ........................... verify directory hierarchy
dsw .......................... delete files interactively
du ........................... find disk usage
echo ......................... print command arguments
ed ........................... text editor
exit ......................... end command sequence
fc ........................... compile Fortran program
fed .......................... form-letter editor
find ......................... find file with given name
form ......................... generate form letter
goto ......................... command transfer
if ........................... conditional command
istat ........................ file status by i-number
ld ........................... link editor (loader)
ln ........................... link to file
login ........................ log on to system
ls ........................... list contents of directory
mail ......................... send mail to another user
man .......................... run off manual section
mesg ......................... permit or deny messages
mkdir ........................ create directory
mount ........................ mount removable file system
mt ........................... save/restore files on magtape
mv ........................... move or rename file
m6 ........................... macroprocessor
nm ........................... print namelist
nroff ........................ format text for printing
od ........................... octal dump of file
opr .......................... print file off-line
ov ........................... page overlay file print
pr ........................... print file with headings
rew .......................... rewind DECtape
rm ........................... remove (delete) file
rmdir ........................ remove (delete) directory
roff ......................... format text for printing
salv ......................... repair damaged file system
sh ........................... command interpreter
sort ......................... sort ASCII file
stat ......................... get file status
strip ........................ remove symbols, relocation bits
stty ......................... set typewriter modes
su ........................... become super-user
sum .......................... sum file
tacct ........................ connect-time accounting
tap .......................... manipulate DECtape
tm ........................... get time information
tss .......................... communicate with MH-TSS (GCOS)
tty .......................... find name of terminal
type ......................... print file page-by-page
umount ....................... dismount removable file system
un ........................... find undefined symbols
wc ........................... get (English) word count
who .......................... who is on the system
write ........................ write to another user
II. SYSTEM CALLS
break ........................ set program break
cemt ......................... catch EMT traps
chdir ........................ change working directory
chmod ........................ change mode of file
chown ........................ change owner of file
close ........................ close open file
creat ........................ create file
exec ......................... execute program file
exit ......................... terminate execution
fork ......................... create new process
fstat ........................ status of open file
getuid ....................... get user ID
gtty ......................... get typewriter mode
hog .......................... set low-priority status
ilgins ....................... catch illegal instruction trap
intr ......................... catch or inhibit interrupts
link ......................... link to file
kill ......................... destroy process
makdir ....................... create directory
mdate ........................ set date modified of file
mount ........................ mount file system
open ......................... open file
quit ......................... catch or inhibit quits
read ......................... read file
rele ......................... release processor
seek ......................... move read or write pointer
setuid ....................... set user ID
sleep ........................ delay execution
stat ......................... get file status
stime ........................ set system time
stty ......................... set mode of typewriter
sync ......................... assure synchronization
tell ......................... find read or write pointer
time ......................... get time of year
umount ....................... dismount file system
unlink ....................... remove (delete) file
wait ......................... wait for process
write ........................ write file
III. SUBROUTINES
atan ......................... arctangent
atof ......................... convert ASCII to floating
atoi ......................... convert ASCII to integer
const ........................ floating-point constants
ctime ........................ convert time to ASCII
exp .......................... exponential function
fptrap ....................... floating-point simulator
ftoa ......................... convert floating to ASCII
gerts ........................ communicate with GCOS
getc ......................... get character
hypot ........................ compute hypotenuse
itoa ......................... convert integer to ASCII
log .......................... logarithm base e
mesg ......................... print string on typewriter
nlist ........................ read name list
ptime ........................ print time
putc ......................... write character or word
qsort ........................ quicker sort
salloc ....................... storage allocator
sin .......................... sine, cosine
sqrt ......................... square root
switch ....................... transfer depending on value
IV. SPECIAL FILES
dn0 .......................... 801 ACU
dp0 .......................... 201 Dataphone
lpr .......................... line printer
mem .......................... core memory
mt0........................... magtape
ppt .......................... punched paper tape
rf0 .......................... RF disk
rk0 .......................... RK disk
rp0 .......................... RP disk
tap0 ......................... DECtape
tty .......................... console typewriter
tty0 ......................... remote typewriter
V. FILE FORMATS
a.out ........................ assembler and loader output
archive ...................... archive file
core ......................... core image file
directory .................... directory format
file system .................. file system format
ident ........................ GCOS ident cards
passwd ....................... password file
tap .......................... DECtape format
uids ......................... map names to user ID's
utmp ......................... logged-in user information
wtmp ......................... accounting files
VI. USER MAINTAINED PROGRAMS
basic ........................ DEC supplied BASIC
bc ........................... compile B program
bj ........................... the game of blackjack
cal .......................... print calender
chash ........................ prepare symbol table
cref ......................... cross reference table
das .......................... disassembler
dli .......................... load DEC binary paper tapes
dpt .......................... read DEC ASCII paper tapes
moo .......................... the game of MOO
ptx .......................... permuted index
tmg .......................... compile tmgl program
ttt .......................... the game of tic-tac-toe
VII. MISCELLANEOUS
ascii ........................ map of ASCII
bproc ........................ boot procedure
getty ........................ adapt to typewriter
glob ......................... argument expander
init ......................... initializer process
kbd .......................... map of TTY 37 keyboard
login ........................ how to log onto system
msh .......................... mini Shell
tabs ......................... set tab stops on typewriter
INDEX
dp0(IV): 201 Dataphone
dn0(IV): 801 ACU
chmod(I): change access mode of files
wtmp(V): accounting files
acct(I): get connect-time accounting
tacct(I): connect-time accounting
acct(I): get connect-time accounting
dn0(IV): 801 ACU
getty(VII): adapt to typewriter
salloc(III): storage allocator
mail(I): send mail to another user
write(I): write to another user
a.out(V): assembler and loader output
ar(I): archive (combine) files
archive(V): archive file
archive(V): archive file
atan(III): arctangent
glob(VII): argument expander
echo(I): print command arguments
ar(I): archive (combine) files
sort(I): sort ASCII file
dpt(VI): read DEC ASCII paper tapes
atof(III): convert ASCII to floating
atoi(III): convert ASCII to integer
ascii(VII): map of ASCII
ctime(III): convert time to ASCII
ftoa(III): convert floating to ASCII
itoa(III): convert integer to ASCII
ascii(VII): map of ASCII
as(I): assembler
a.out(V): assembler and loader output
as(I): assembler
sync(II): assure synchronization
atan(III): arctangent
atof(III): convert ASCII to floating
atoi(III): convert ASCII to integer
bc(VI): compile B program
log(III): logarithm base e
bas(I): BASIC dialect
bas(I): BASIC dialect
basic(VI): DEC supplied BASIC
basic(VI): DEC supplied BASIC
bc(VI): compile B program
su(I): become super-user
dli(VI): load DEC binary paper tapes
strip(I): remove symbols, relocation bits
bj(VI): the game of blackjack
bj(VI): the game of blackjack
bproc(VII): boot procedure
bproc(VII): boot procedure
break(II): set program break
break(II): set program break
istat(I): file status by i-number
cc(I): compile C program
dc(I): desk calculator
cal(VI): print calender
cal(VI): print calender
ident(V): GCOS ident cards
cemt(II): catch EMT traps
ilgins(II): catch illegal instruction trap
intr(II): catch or inhibit interrupts
quit(II): catch or inhibit quits
cat(I): concatenate (or print) files
cc(I): compile C program
cemt(II): catch EMT traps
chmod(I): change access mode of files
chmod(II): change mode of file
chown(II): change owner of file
chown(I): change owner of files
chdir(I): change working directory
chdir(II): change working directory
putc(III): write character or word
getc(III): get character
chash(VI): prepare symbol table
chdir(I): change working directory
chdir(II): change working directory
check(I): check consistency of file system
check(I): check consistency of file system
chmod(I): change access mode of files
chmod(II): change mode of file
chown(I): change owner of files
chown(II): change owner of file
close(II): close open file
close(II): close open file
cmp(I): compare file contents
ar(I): archive (combine) files
echo(I): print command arguments
sh(I): command interpreter
exit(I): end command sequence
goto(I): command transfer
if(I): conditional command
gerts(III): communicate with GCOS
tss(I): communicate with MH-TSS (GCOS)
cmp(I): compare file contents
bc(VI): compile B program
cc(I): compile C program
fc(I): compile Fortran program
tmg(VI): compile tmgl program
hypot(III): compute hypotenuse
cat(I): concatenate (or print) files
if(I): conditional command
acct(I): get connect-time accounting
tacct(I): connect-time accounting
check(I): check consistency of file system
tty(IV): console typewriter
const(III): floating-point constants
const(III): floating-point constants
ls(I): list contents of directory
cmp(I): compare file contents
atof(III): convert ASCII to floating
atoi(III): convert ASCII to integer
ftoa(III): convert floating to ASCII
itoa(III): convert integer to ASCII
ctime(III): convert time to ASCII
cp(I): copy file
core(V): core image file
mem(IV): core memory
core(V): core image file
sin(III): sine, cosine
wc(I): get (English) word count
cp(I): copy file
makdir(II): create directory
mkdir(I): create directory
creat(II): create file
fork(II): create new process
creat(II): create file
cref(VI): cross reference table
cref(VI): cross reference table
ctime(III): convert time to ASCII
dpd(I): spawn data-phone daemon
salv(I): repair damaged file system
das(VI): disassembler
dpd(I): spawn data-phone daemon
dp0(IV): 201 Dataphone
date(I): get date and time of day
mdate(II): set date modified of file
date(I): get date and time of day
date(I): get date and time of day
db(I): symbolic debugger
dc(I): desk calculator
db(I): symbolic debugger
dpt(VI): read DEC ASCII paper tapes
dli(VI): load DEC binary paper tapes
basic(VI): DEC supplied BASIC
tap(V): DECtape format
rew(I): rewind DECtape
tap0(IV): DECtape
tap(I): manipulate DECtape
sleep(II): delay execution
rmdir(I): remove (delete) directory
rm(I): remove (delete) file
dsw(I): delete files interactively
unlink(II): remove (delete) file
mesg(I): permit or deny messages
switch(III): transfer depending on value
dc(I): desk calculator
kill(II): destroy process
df(I): find free disk space
bas(I): BASIC dialect
directory(V): directory format
ds(I): verify directory hierarchy
chdir(I): change working directory
chdir(II): change working directory
ls(I): list contents of directory
makdir(II): create directory
mkdir(I): create directory
rmdir(I): remove (delete) directory
directory(V): directory format
das(VI): disassembler
df(I): find free disk space
du(I): find disk usage
rf0(IV): RF disk
rk0(IV): RK disk
rp0(IV): RP disk
umount(II): dismount file system
umount(I): dismount removable file system
dli(VI): load DEC binary paper tapes
dn0(IV): 801 ACU
dp0(IV): 201 Dataphone
dpd(I): spawn data-phone daemon
dpt(VI): read DEC ASCII paper tapes
ds(I): verify directory hierarchy
dsw(I): delete files interactively
du(I): find disk usage
od(I): octal dump of file
echo(I): print command arguments
ed(I): text editor
ld(I): link editor (loader)
ed(I): text editor
fed(I): form-letter editor
log(III): logarithm base e
cemt(II): catch EMT traps
exit(I): end command sequence
wc(I): get (English) word count
exec(II): execute program file
exec(II): execute program file
exit(II): terminate execution
sleep(II): delay execution
exit(I): end command sequence
exit(II): terminate execution
glob(VII): argument expander
exp(III): exponential function
exp(III): exponential function
fc(I): compile Fortran program
fed(I): form-letter editor
cmp(I): compare file contents
opr(I): print file off-line
type(I): print file page-by-page
ov(I): page overlay file print
istat(I): file status by i-number
stat(I): get file status
stat(II): get file status
file system(V): file system format
check(I): check consistency of file system
mount(I): mount removable file system
mount(II): mount file system
salv(I): repair damaged file system
umount(I): dismount removable file system
umount(II): dismount file system
file system(V): file system format
pr(I): print file with headings
archive(V): archive file
chmod(II): change mode of file
chown(II): change owner of file
close(II): close open file
core(V): core image file
cp(I): copy file
creat(II): create file
exec(II): execute program file
fstat(II): status of open file
link(II): link to file
ln(I): link to file
mdate(II): set date modified of file
mv(I): move or rename file
od(I): octal dump of file
open(II): open file
passwd(V): password file
read(II): read file
rm(I): remove (delete) file
dsw(I): delete files interactively
mt(I): save/restore files on magtape
ar(I): archive (combine) files
cat(I): concatenate (or print) files
chmod(I): change access mode of files
chown(I): change owner of files
sort(I): sort ASCII file
sum(I): sum file
wtmp(V): accounting files
unlink(II): remove (delete) file
write(II): write file
du(I): find disk usage
df(I): find free disk space
tty(I): find name of terminal
tell(II): find read or write pointer
un(I): find undefined symbols
ftoa(III): convert floating to ASCII
atof(III): convert ASCII to floating
const(III): floating-point constants
fptrap(III): floating-point simulator
fork(II): create new process
form(I): generate form letter
nroff(I): format text for printing
roff(I): format text for printing
directory(V): directory format
file system(V): file system format
tap(V): DECtape format
form(I): generate form letter
fed(I): form-letter editor
fc(I): compile Fortran program
fptrap(III): floating-point simulator
df(I): find free disk space
fstat(II): status of open file
ftoa(III): convert floating to ASCII
exp(III): exponential function
bj(VI): the game of blackjack
moo(VI): the game of MOO
ttt(VI): the game of tic-tac-toe
ident(V): GCOS ident cards
gerts(III): communicate with GCOS
tss(I): communicate with MH-TSS (GCOS)
form(I): generate form letter
gerts(III): communicate with GCOS
getc(III): get character
acct(I): get connect-time accounting
date(I): get date and time of day
wc(I): get (English) word count
stat(I): get file status
stat(II): get file status
tm(I): get time information
time(II): get time of year
gtty(II): get typewriter mode
getuid(II): get user ID
getc(III): get character
getty(VII): adapt to typewriter
getuid(II): get user ID
glob(VII): argument expander
goto(I): command transfer
gtty(II): get typewriter mode
pr(I): print file with headings
ds(I): verify directory hierarchy
hog(II): set low-priority status
hypot(III): compute hypotenuse
hypot(III): compute hypotenuse
:(I): place label
ident(V): GCOS ident cards
ident(V): GCOS ident cards
getuid(II): get user ID
setuid(II): set user ID
uids(V): map names to user ID's
if(I): conditional command
ilgins(II): catch illegal instruction trap
ilgins(II): catch illegal instruction trap
core(V): core image file
ptx(VI): permuted index
tm(I): get time information
utmp(V): logged-in user information
intr(II): catch or inhibit interrupts
quit(II): catch or inhibit quits
init(VII): initializer process
init(VII): initializer process
ilgins(II): catch illegal instruction trap
itoa(III): convert integer to ASCII
atoi(III): convert ASCII to integer
dsw(I): delete files interactively
sh(I): command interpreter
intr(II): catch or inhibit interrupts
intr(II): catch or inhibit interrupts
istat(I): file status by i-number
istat(I): file status by i-number
itoa(III): convert integer to ASCII
kill(II): destroy process
:(I): place label
ld(I): link editor (loader)
form(I): generate form letter
lpr(IV): line printer
ld(I): link editor (loader)
link(II): link to file
ln(I): link to file
link(II): link to file
ls(I): list contents of directory
nlist(III): read name list
ln(I): link to file
dli(VI): load DEC binary paper tapes
a.out(V): assembler and loader output
ld(I): link editor (loader)
login(I): log on to system
log(III): logarithm base e
utmp(V): logged-in user information
log(III): logarithm base e
login(I): log on to system
hog(II): set low-priority status
lpr(IV): line printer
ls(I): list contents of directory
m6(I): macroprocessor
m6(I): macroprocessor
mt0 magtape
mt(I): save/restore files on magtape
mail(I): send mail to another user
mail(I): send mail to another user
makdir(II): create directory
man(I): run off manual section
tap(I): manipulate DECtape
man(I): run off manual section
uids(V): map names to user ID's
ascii(VII): map of ASCII
mdate(II): set date modified of file
mem(IV): core memory
mem(IV): core memory
mesg(I): permit or deny messages
mesg(III): print string on typewriter
mesg(I): permit or deny messages
tss(I): communicate with MH-TSS (GCOS)
mkdir(I): create directory
chmod(II): change mode of file
chmod(I): change access mode of files
stty(II): set mode of typewriter
gtty(II): get typewriter mode
stty(I): set typewriter modes
mdate(II): set date modified of file
moo(VI): the game of MOO
moo(VI): the game of MOO
mount(II): mount file system
mount(I): mount removable file system
mount(I): mount removable file system
mount(II): mount file system
mv(I): move or rename file
seek(II): move read or write pointer
mt0 magtape
mt(I): save/restore files on magtape
mv(I): move or rename file
nlist(III): read name list
tty(I): find name of terminal
nm(I): print namelist
uids(V): map names to user ID's
fork(II): create new process
nlist(III): read name list
nm(I): print namelist
nroff(I): format text for printing
od(I): octal dump of file
od(I): octal dump of file
man(I): run off manual section
opr(I): print file off-line
close(II): close open file
fstat(II): status of open file
open(II): open file
open(II): open file
opr(I): print file off-line
cat(I): concatenate (or print) files
a.out(V): assembler and loader output
ov(I): page overlay file print
ov(I): page overlay file print
chown(II): change owner of file
chown(I): change owner of files
ov(I): page overlay file print
type(I): print file page-by-page
ppt(IV): punched paper tape
dli(VI): load DEC binary paper tapes
dpt(VI): read DEC ASCII paper tapes
passwd(V): password file
passwd(V): password file
mesg(I): permit or deny messages
ptx(VI): permuted index
:(I): place label
seek(II): move read or write pointer
tell(II): find read or write pointer
ppt(IV): punched paper tape
chash(VI): prepare symbol table
pr(I): print file with headings
cal(VI): print calender
echo(I): print command arguments
opr(I): print file off-line
type(I): print file page-by-page
pr(I): print file with headings
cat(I): concatenate (or print) files
nm(I): print namelist
mesg(III): print string on typewriter
ptime(III): print time
lpr(IV): line printer
nroff(I): format text for printing
roff(I): format text for printing
ov(I): page overlay file print
bproc(VII): boot procedure
fork(II): create new process
init(VII): initializer process
kill(II): destroy process
rele(II): release processor
wait(II): wait for process
break(II): set program break
exec(II): execute program file
bc(VI): compile B program
cc(I): compile C program
fc(I): compile Fortran program
tmg(VI): compile tmgl program
ptime(III): print time
ptx(VI): permuted index
ppt(IV): punched paper tape
putc(III): write character or word
qsort(III): quicker sort
qsort(III): quicker sort
quit(II): catch or inhibit quits
quit(II): catch or inhibit quits
dpt(VI): read DEC ASCII paper tapes
read(II): read file
nlist(III): read name list
seek(II): move read or write pointer
tell(II): find read or write pointer
read(II): read file
cref(VI): cross reference table
rele(II): release processor
rele(II): release processor
strip(I): remove symbols, relocation bits
tty0(IV): remote typewriter
mount(I): mount removable file system
umount(I): dismount removable file system
rmdir(I): remove (delete) directory
rm(I): remove (delete) file
unlink(II): remove (delete) file
strip(I): remove symbols, relocation bits
mv(I): move or rename file
salv(I): repair damaged file system
rew(I): rewind DECtape
rew(I): rewind DECtape
rf0(IV): RF disk
rf0(IV): RF disk
rk0(IV): RK disk
rk0(IV): RK disk
rmdir(I): remove (delete) directory
rm(I): remove (delete) file
roff(I): format text for printing
sqrt(III): square root
rp0(IV): RP disk
rp0(IV): RP disk
man(I): run off manual section
salloc(III): storage allocator
salv(I): repair damaged file system
mt(I): save/restore files on magtape
man(I): run off manual section
seek(II): move read or write pointer
mail(I): send mail to another user
exit(I): end command sequence
mdate(II): set date modified of file
hog(II): set low-priority status
stty(II): set mode of typewriter
break(II): set program break
stime(II): set system time
stty(I): set typewriter modes
setuid(II): set user ID
setuid(II): set user ID
sh(I): command interpreter
fptrap(III): floating-point simulator
sin(III): sine, cosine
sin(III): sine, cosine
sleep(II): delay execution
sort(I): sort ASCII file
sort(I): sort ASCII file
qsort(III): quicker sort
df(I): find free disk space
dpd(I): spawn data-phone daemon
sqrt(III): square root
sqrt(III): square root
stat(I): get file status
stat(II): get file status
istat(I): file status by i-number
fstat(II): status of open file
hog(II): set low-priority status
stat(I): get file status
stat(II): get file status
stime(II): set system time
salloc(III): storage allocator
mesg(III): print string on typewriter
strip(I): remove symbols, relocation bits
stty(I): set typewriter modes
stty(II): set mode of typewriter
su(I): become super-user
sum(I): sum file
sum(I): sum file
su(I): become super-user
basic(VI): DEC supplied BASIC
switch(III): transfer depending on value
chash(VI): prepare symbol table
db(I): symbolic debugger
strip(I): remove symbols, relocation bits
un(I): find undefined symbols
sync(II): assure synchronization
sync(II): assure synchronization
file system(V): file system format
stime(II): set system time
check(I): check consistency of file system
login(I): log on to system
mount(I): mount removable file system
mount(II): mount file system
salv(I): repair damaged file system
umount(I): dismount removable file system
umount(II): dismount file system
file system(V): file system format
who(I): who is on the system
chash(VI): prepare symbol table
cref(VI): cross reference table
tacct(I): connect-time accounting
tap0(IV): DECtape
ppt(IV): punched paper tape
dli(VI): load DEC binary paper tapes
dpt(VI): read DEC ASCII paper tapes
tap(I): manipulate DECtape
tap(V): DECtape format
tell(II): find read or write pointer
tty(I): find name of terminal
exit(II): terminate execution
ed(I): text editor
nroff(I): format text for printing
roff(I): format text for printing
ttt(VI): the game of tic-tac-toe
tm(I): get time information
date(I): get date and time of day
time(II): get time of year
ctime(III): convert time to ASCII
time(II): get time of year
ptime(III): print time
stime(II): set system time
tmg(VI): compile tmgl program
tmg(VI): compile tmgl program
tm(I): get time information
switch(III): transfer depending on value
goto(I): command transfer
ilgins(II): catch illegal instruction trap
cemt(II): catch EMT traps
tss(I): communicate with MH-TSS (GCOS)
ttt(VI): the game of tic-tac-toe
tty0(IV): remote typewriter
tty(I): find name of terminal
tty(IV): console typewriter
type(I): print file page-by-page
gtty(II): get typewriter mode
stty(I): set typewriter modes
getty(VII): adapt to typewriter
mesg(III): print string on typewriter
stty(II): set mode of typewriter
tty0(IV): remote typewriter
tty(IV): console typewriter
uids(V): map names to user ID's
umount(I): dismount removable file system
umount(II): dismount file system
un(I): find undefined symbols
un(I): find undefined symbols
unlink(II): remove (delete) file
du(I): find disk usage
getuid(II): get user ID
setuid(II): set user ID
uids(V): map names to user ID's
utmp(V): logged-in user information
mail(I): send mail to another user
write(I): write to another user
utmp(V): logged-in user information
switch(III): transfer depending on value
ds(I): verify directory hierarchy
wait(II): wait for process
wait(II): wait for process
wc(I): get (English) word count
who(I): who is on the system
who(I): who is on the system
gerts(III): communicate with GCOS
pr(I): print file with headings
tss(I): communicate with MH-TSS (GCOS)
wc(I): get (English) word count
putc(III): write character or word
chdir(I): change working directory
chdir(II): change working directory
putc(III): write character or word
write(II): write file
seek(II): move read or write pointer
tell(II): find read or write pointer
write(I): write to another user
write(I): write to another user
write(II): write file
wtmp(V): accounting files
time(II): get time of year