UNIX PROGRAMMER'S MANUAL
Third Edition
K. Thompson
D. M. Ritchie
February, 1973
c
Copyright 1972
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.
No part of this document may be reproduced,
or distributed outside the Laboratories, without
the written permission of Bell Telephone Laboratories.
PREFACE
to the Third Edition
In the months since the last appearance of this manual, many
changes have occurred both in the system itself and in the way it
is used.
Perhaps most obviously, there have been additions, deletions, and
modifications to the system and its software. It is these
changes, of course, that caused the appearance of this revised
manual.
Second, the number of people spending an appreciable amount of
time writing UNIX software has increased. Credit is due to
L. L. Cherry, M. D. McIlroy, L. E. McMahon, R. Morris,
J. F. Ossanna, and E. N. Pinson for their contributions.
Finally, the number of UNIX installations has grown to 16, with
more expected. None of these has exactly the same complement of
hardware or software. Therefore, at any particular installation,
it is quite possible that this manual will give inappropriate in-
formation.
In particular, any system which uses a PDP-11/20 processor will
not include all the software described herein, nor will the soft-
ware behave the same way. The second, or even the first, edition
of this manual is likely to be more appropriate.
Besides additions, deletions, and modifications to the writeups
in each section, this manual differs from its predecessors in two
ways: all the commands used for system maintenance and not in-
tended for normal users have been moved to a new section VIII;
and there is a new "How to Get Started" chapter that gives some
elementary facts and many pointers to other sections.
INTRODUCTION TO THIS MANUAL
This manual gives descriptions of the publicly available features
of UNIX. It provides neither a general overview (see "The UNIX
Time-sharing System" for that) nor details of the implementation
of the system (which remain to be disclosed).
Within the area it surveys, this manual attempts to be as com-
plete and timely as possible. A conscious decision was made to
describe each program in exactly the state it was in at the time
its manual section was prepared. In particular, the desire to
describe something as it should be, not as it is, was resisted.
Inevitably, this means that many sections will soon be out of
date. (The rate of change of the system is so great that a dis-
mayingly large number of early sections had to be modified while
the rest were being written. The unbounded effort required to
stay up-to-date is best indicated by the fact that several of the
programs described were written specifically to aid in prepara-
tion of this manual!)
This manual is divided into eight sections:
I. Commands
II. System calls
III. Subroutines
IV. Special files
V. File formats
VI. User-maintained programs
VII. Miscellaneous
VIII. Maintenance
Commands are programs intended to be invoked directly by the
user, in contradistinction to subroutines, which are intended to
be called by the user's programs. Commands generally reside in
directory /bin (for binary programs). This directory is searched
automatically by the command line interpreter. Some programs
classified as commands are located elsewhere; this fact is indi-
cated in the appropriate sections.
System calls are entries into the UNIX supervisor. In assembly
language, they are coded with the use of the opcode "sys", a syn-
onym for the trap instruction.
A small assortment of subroutines is available; they are de-
scribed in section III. The binary form of most of them is kept
in the system library /usr/lib/liba.a.
The special files section IV discusses the characteristics of
each system "file" which actually refers to an I/O device. Un-
like previous editions, the names in this section refer to the
DEC device names for the hardware, instead of the neames of the
special files themselves.
The file formats section V documents the structure of particular
kinds of files; for example, the form of the output of the loader
and assembler is given. Excluded are files used by only one com-
mand, for example the assembler's intermediate files.
User-maintained programs (section VI) are not considered part of
the UNIX system, and the principal reason for listing them is to
indicate their existence without necessarily giving a complete
description. The author should be consulted for information.
The miscellaneous section (VII) gathers odds and ends.
Section VIII discusses commands which are not intended for use by
the ordinary user, in some cases because they disclose informa-
tion in which he is presumably not interested, and in others be-
cause they perform privileged functions.
Each section consists of a number of independent entries of a
page or so each. The name of the entry is in the upper corners
of its pages, its preparation date in the upper middle. Entries
within each section are alphabetized. The page numbers of each
entry start at 1. (The earlier hope for frequent, partial up-
dates of the manual is clearly in vain, but in any event it is
not feasible to maintain consecutive page numbering in a document
like this.)
All entries have a common format.
The name section repeats the entry name and gives a very
short description of its purpose.
The synopsis summarizes the use of the program being de-
scribed. A few conventions are used, particularly in the
Commands section:
Underlined words are considered literals, and are typed
just as they appear.
Square brackets ([]) around an argument indicate that the
argument is optional. When an argument is given as
"name", it always refers to a file name.
Ellipses "..." are used to show that the previous
argument-prototype may be repeated.
A final convention is used by the commands themselves.
An argument beginning with a minus sign "-" is often tak-
en to mean some sort of flag argument even if it appears
in a position where a file name could appear. Therefore,
it is unwise to have files whose names begin with "-".
The description section discusses in detail the subject at
hand.
The files section gives the names of files which are built
into the program.
A see also section gives pointers to related information.
A diagnostics section discusses the diagnostics that may be
produced. This section tends to be as terse as the diagnos-
tics themselves.
The bugs section gives known bugs and sometimes deficien-
cies. Occasionally also the suggested fix is described.
Previous edition of this manual had an owner section, which has
been dropped from this edition because the "owners" of many rou-
tines became fairly hard to pin down. The major contributors to
UNIX, (cast in order of appearance) together with their login
names and most notable contributions, are
ken K. Thompson (UNIX, many commands)
dmr D. M. Ritchie (many commands, as, ld, C)
jfo J. F. Ossanna (roff, nroff)
doug M. D. McIlroy (tmg, m6)
rhm R. Morris (dc, much of library)
lem L. E. McMahon (cref)
llc L. L. Cherry (form, fed, salloc)
csr C. S. Roberts (tss)
enp E. N. Pinson (proof)
At the beginning of this document is a table of contents, orga-
nized by section and alphabetically within each section. There
is also a permuted index derived from the table of contents.
Within each index entry, the title of the writeup to which it
refers is followed by the appropriate section number in parenthe-
ses. This fact is important because there is considerable name
duplication among the sections, arising principally from commands
which exist only to exercise a particular system call.
This manual was prepared using the UNIX text editor ed and the
formatting program roff.
The assistance of R. Morris is gratefully acknowledged.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. COMMANDS
: ............................ place label
ar ........................... archive (combine) files
as ........................... assembler
bas .......................... BASIC dialect
cat .......................... concatenate (or print) files
cc ........................... compile C program
cdb .......................... C debugger
chdir ........................ change working directory
chmod ........................ change access mode of files
chown ........................ change owner of files
cmp .......................... compare file contents
cp ........................... copy file
cref ......................... cross reference table
crypt ........................ encrypt, decrypt a file
date ......................... get date and time of day
db ........................... symbolic debugger
dc ........................... desk calculator
df ........................... find free disk space
dsw .......................... delete files interactively
du ........................... find disk usage
echo ......................... print command arguments
ed ........................... text editor
exit ......................... end command sequence
factor ....................... factor a number
fc ........................... compile Fortran program
fed .......................... form letter editor
form ......................... generate form letter
forml ........................ generate form letters
goto ......................... command transfer
hyphen ....................... find hyphenated words
if ........................... conditional command
ld ........................... link editor (loader)
ln ........................... link to file
login ........................ log on to system
ls ........................... list contents of directory
m6 ........................... macroprocessor
mail ......................... send mail to another user
man .......................... run off manual section
mesg ......................... permit or deny messages
mkdir ........................ create directory
mt ........................... save, restore files on magtape
mv ........................... move or rename file
nm ........................... print namelist
nroff ........................ format text for printing
od ........................... octal dump of file
opr .......................... print file off-line
ov ........................... page overlay file print
passwd ....................... set login password
pr ........................... print file with headings
proof ........................ compare text files
reloc ........................ relocate object files
rew .......................... rewind DECtape
rm ........................... remove (delete) file
rmdir ........................ remove (delete) directory
roff ......................... format text for printing
sh ........................... command interpreter
size ......................... get executable program size
sno .......................... compile Snobol program
sort ......................... sort ASCII file
speak ........................ send words to voice synthesizer
split ........................ break a file into pieces
stat ......................... get file status
strip ........................ remove symbols, relocation bits
stty ......................... set typewriter modes
sum .......................... sum file
tap .......................... save, restore files on DECtape
time ......................... get time information
tmg .......................... compile tmgl program
tss .......................... communicate with MH-TSS (GCOS)
tty .......................... find name of terminal
type ......................... print file page-by-page
typo ......................... find typographic errors
un ........................... find undefined symbols
uniq ......................... find duplicate lines in a file
vs ........................... generate voice synthesizer phonemes
wc ........................... get (English) word count
who .......................... who is on the system
write ........................ write to another user
II. SYSTEM CALLS
boot ......................... reboot the system
break ........................ set program break
cemt ......................... catch EMT traps
chdir ........................ change working directory
chmod ........................ change mode of file
chown ........................ change owner of file
close ........................ close open file
creat ........................ create file
csw .......................... read the console switches
dup .......................... duplicate an open file
exec ......................... execute program file
exit ......................... terminate execution
fork ......................... create new process
fpe .......................... catch floating exception errors
fstat ........................ status of open file
getuid ....................... get user ID
gtty ......................... get typewriter mode
ilgins ....................... catch illegal instruction trap
intr ......................... catch or inhibit interrupts
kill ......................... destroy process
link ......................... link to file
makdir ....................... create directory
mdate ........................ set date modified of file
mount ........................ mount file system
nice ......................... set low-priority status
open ......................... open file
pipe ......................... open inter process channel
quit ......................... inhibit quits
read ......................... read file
rele ......................... release processor
seek ......................... move read or write pointer
setuid ....................... set user ID
sleep ........................ delay execution
stat ......................... get file status
stime ........................ set system time
stty ......................... set mode of typewriter
sync ......................... assure synchronization
time ......................... get time of year
times ........................ get execution times
umount ....................... dismount file system
unlink ....................... remove (delete) file
wait ......................... wait for process
write ........................ write file
III. SUBROUTINES
atan ......................... arctangent
atof ......................... convert ASCII to floating
atoi ......................... convert ASCII to integer
compar ....................... string compare for sort
crypt ........................ encrypt according to a keyword
ctime ........................ convert time to ASCII
ddsput ....................... display character on Picturephone
ecvt ......................... edited output conversion
exp .......................... exponential function
ftoa ......................... convert floating to ASCII
ftoo ......................... convert floating to octal
gerts ........................ communicate with GCOS
getc ......................... get character
hypot ........................ compute hypotenuse
itoa ......................... convert integer to ASCII
log .......................... logarithm base e
mesg ......................... print string on typewriter
nlist ........................ read name list
pow .......................... take powers of numbers
ptime ........................ print time
putc ......................... write character or word
qsort ........................ quicker sort
rand ......................... pseudo random number generator
salloc ....................... storage allocator
sin .......................... sine, cosine
sqrt ......................... square root
switch ....................... transfer depending on value
ttyn ......................... find teletype name
IV. SPECIAL FILES
dc ........................... remote typewriter
dn ........................... 801 ACU
dp ........................... 201 Dataphone
kl ........................... console typewriter
mem .......................... core memory
pc ........................... punched paper tape
rf ........................... RF disk
rk ........................... RK disk
tc ........................... DECtape
tm............................ 9-track magtape
vt ........................... storage-tube display
V. FILE FORMATS
a.out ........................ assembler and loader output
archive ...................... archive file
core ......................... core image file
directory .................... directory format
file system .................. file system format
passwd ....................... password file
tap .......................... DECtape and magtape format
utmp ......................... logged-in user information
wtmp ......................... accounting files
VI. USER MAINTAINED PROGRAMS
bc ........................... compile B program
bj ........................... blackjack
ptx .......................... permuted index
yacc ......................... yet another compiler-compiler
VII. MISCELLANEOUS
ascii ........................ map of ASCII
dpd .......................... spawn dataphone daemon
getty ........................ adapt to typewriter
glob ......................... argument expander
greek ........................ extended TTY 37 typebox map
init ......................... initializer process
msh .......................... mini Shell
tabs ......................... set tab stops on typewriter
vsp .......................... voice synthesizer phonemes
VIII. SYSTEM MAINTAINANCE
20boot ....................... reboot 11/20 system
acct ......................... get connect-time accounting
bproc ........................ boot procedure
check ........................ check consistency of file system
chk .......................... check all file systems
clri ......................... clear file's i-node
dcheck ....................... verify directory hierarchy
dli .......................... load DEC binary paper tapes
istat ........................ file status by i-number
kill ......................... terminate a process
mount ........................ mount removable file system
ps ........................... get process status
salv ......................... repair damaged file system
su ........................... become super-user
swtmp ........................ truncate accounting files
tm ........................... get system time information
umount ....................... dismount removable file system
INDEX
20boot(VIII): reboot 11/20 system
dp(IV): 201 Dataphone
20boot(VIII): reboot 11/20 system
greek(VII): extended TTY 37 typebox map
dn(IV): 801 ACU
tm 9-track magtape
:(I): place label
a.out(V): assembler and loader output
chmod(I): change access mode of files
crypt(III): encrypt according to a keyword
wtmp(V): accounting files
acct(VIII): get connect-time accounting
acct(VIII): get connect-time accounting
dn(IV): 801 ACU
getty(VII): adapt to typewriter
chk(VIII): check all file systems
salloc(III): storage allocator
dup(II): duplicate an open file
yacc(VI): yet another compiler-compiler
mail(I): send mail to another user
write(I): write to another user
ar(I): archive (combine) files
archive(V): archive file
archive(V): archive file
atan(III): arctangent
glob(VII): argument expander
echo(I): print command arguments
ar(I): archive (combine) files
sort(I): sort ASCII file
atof(III): convert ASCII to floating
atoi(III): convert ASCII to integer
ascii(VII): map of ASCII
ascii(VII): map of ASCII
ctime(III): convert time to ASCII
convert floating to ASCII...ftoa(III):
itoa(III): convert integer to ASCII
as(I): assembler
a.out(V): assembler and loader output
as(I): assembler
sync(II): assure synchronization
atan(III): arctangent
atof(III): convert ASCII to floating
atoi(III): convert ASCII to integer
bc(VI): compile B program
log(III): logarithm base e
bas(I): BASIC dialect
bas(I): BASIC dialect
bc(VI): compile B program
dli(VIII): load DEC binary paper tapes
remove symbols, relocation bits...strip(I):
bj(VI): blackjack
bj(VI): blackjack
bproc(VIII): boot procedure
boot(II): reboot the system
bproc(VIII): boot procedure
split(I): break a file into pieces
break(II): set program break
break(II): set program break
istat(VIII): file status by i-number
cdb(I): C debugger
cc(I): compile C program
dc(I): desk calculator
cemt(II): catch EMT traps
fpe(II): catch floating exception errors
ilgins(II): catch illegal instruction trap
intr(II): catch or inhibit interrupts
cat(I): concatenate (or print) files
cc(I): compile C program
cdb(I): C debugger
cemt(II): catch EMT traps
chmod(I): change access mode of files
chmod(II): change mode of file
chown(I): change owner of files
chown(II): change owner of file
chdir(I): change working directory
chdir(II): change working directory
pipe(II): open inter process channel
ddsput(III): display character on Picturephone
putc(III): write character or word
getc(III): get character
chdir(I): change working directory
chdir(II): change working directory
chk(VIII): check all file systems
check(VIII): check consistency of file system
system... check(VIII): check consistency of file
chk(VIII): check all file systems
chmod(I): change access mode of files
chmod(II): change mode of file
chown(I): change owner of files
chown(II): change owner of file
clri(VIII): clear file's i-node
close(II): close open file
close(II): close open file
clri(VIII): clear file's i-node
cmp(I): compare file contents
ar(I): archive (combine) files
echo(I): print command arguments
sh(I): command interpreter
exit(I): end command sequence
goto(I): command transfer
if(I): conditional command
gerts(III): communicate with GCOS
tss(I): communicate with MH-TSS (GCOS)
cmp(I): compare file contents
compar(III): string compare for sort
proof(I): compare text files
compar(III): string compare for sort
bc(VI): compile B program
cc(I): compile C program
fc(I): compile Fortran program
sno(I): compile Snobol program
tmg(I): compile tmgl program
yacc(VI): yet another compiler-compiler
hypot(III): compute hypotenuse
cat(I): concatenate (or print) files
if(I): conditional command
acct(VIII): get connect-time accounting
check(VIII): check consistency of file system
csw(II): read the console switches
kl(IV): console typewriter
ls(I): list contents of directory
cmp(I): compare file contents
ecvt(III): edited output conversion
atof(III): convert ASCII to floating
atoi(III): convert ASCII to integer
ftoa(III): convert floating to ASCII
ftoo(III): convert floating to octal
itoa(III): convert integer to ASCII
ctime(III): convert time to ASCII
cp(I): copy file
core(V): core image file
mem(IV): core memory
core(V): core image file
sin(III): sine, cosine
wc(I): get (English) word count
cp(I): copy file
makdir(II): create directory
mkdir(I): create directory
creat(II): create file
fork(II): create new process
creat(II): create file
cref(I): cross reference table
cref(I): cross reference table
crypt(I): encrypt, decrypt a file
crypt(III): encrypt according to a keyword
csw(II): read the console switches
ctime(III): convert time to ASCII
dpd(VII): spawn dataphone daemon
salv(VIII): repair damaged file system
dpd(VII): spawn dataphone daemon
dp(IV): 201 Dataphone
date(I): get date and time of day
mdate(II): set date modified of file
date(I): get date and time of day
date(I): get date and time of day
db(I): symbolic debugger
dcheck(VIII): verify directory hierarchy
dc(I): desk calculator
dc(IV): remote typewriter
Picturephone... ddsput(III): display character on
cdb(I): C debugger
db(I): symbolic debugger
dli(VIII): load DEC binary paper tapes
crypt(I): encrypt, decrypt a file
tap(V): DECtape and magtape format
rew(I): rewind DECtape
save, restore files on DECtape...tap(I):
tc(IV): DECtape
sleep(II): delay execution
dsw(I): delete files interactively
rmdir(I): remove (delete) directory
rm(I): remove (delete) file
unlink(II): remove (delete) file
mesg(I): permit or deny messages
switch(III): transfer depending on value
dc(I): desk calculator
kill(II): destroy process
df(I): find free disk space
bas(I): BASIC dialect
directory(V): directory format
dcheck(VIII): verify directory hierarchy
directory(V): directory format
chdir(I): change working directory
chdir(II): change working directory
ls(I): list contents of directory
makdir(II): create directory
mkdir(I): create directory
rmdir(I): remove (delete) directory
df(I): find free disk space
du(I): find disk usage
rf(IV): RF disk
rk(IV): RK disk
umount(II): dismount file system
ddsput(III): display character on Picturephone
vt(IV): storage-tube display
dli(VIII): load DEC binary paper tapes
dn(IV): 801 ACU
dpd(VII): spawn dataphone daemon
dp(IV): 201 Dataphone
dsw(I): delete files interactively
du(I): find disk usage
od(I): octal dump of file
dup(II): duplicate an open file
dup(II): duplicate an open file
uniq(I): find duplicate lines in a file
echo(I): print command arguments
ecvt(III): edited output conversion
ed(I): text editor
ecvt(III): edited output conversion
ld(I): link editor (loader)
ed(I): text editor
fed(I): form letter editor
cemt(II): catch EMT traps
crypt(III): encrypt according to a keyword
crypt(I): encrypt, decrypt a file
exit(I): end command sequence
wc(I): get (English) word count
catch floating exception errors...fpe(II):
typo(I): find typographic errors
fpe(II): catch floating exception errors
exec(II): execute program file
size(I): get executable program size
exec(II): execute program file
times(II): get execution times
exit(II): terminate execution
sleep(II): delay execution
exit(I): end command sequence
exit(II): terminate execution
glob(VII): argument expander
exp(III): exponential function
exp(III): exponential function
greek(VII): extended TTY 37 typebox map
log(III): logarithm base e
factor(I): factor a number
factor(I): factor a number
fc(I): compile Fortran program
fed(I): form letter editor
cmp(I): compare file contents
split(I): break a file into pieces
opr(I): print file off-line
type(I): print file page-by-page
ov(I): page overlay file print
istat(VIII): file status by i-number
stat(I): get file status
stat(II): get file status
file system(V): file system format
chk(VIII): check all file systems
file system(V): file system format
check consistency of file system...check(VIII):
mount(II): mount file system
mount(VIII): mount removable file system
salv(VIII): repair damaged file system
umount(II): dismount file system
pr(I): print file with headings
clri(VIII): clear file's i-node
dsw(I): delete files interactively
tap(I): save, restore files on DECtape
mt(I): save, restore files on magtape
ar(I): archive (combine) files
concatenate (or print) files...cat(I):
change access mode of files...chmod(I):
chown(I): change owner of files
proof(I): compare text files
reloc(I): relocate object files
wtmp(V): accounting files
archive(V): archive file
chmod(II): change mode of file
chown(II): change owner of file
close(II): close open file
core(V): core image file
cp(I): copy file
creat(II): create file
crypt(I): encrypt, decrypt a file
dup(II): duplicate an open file
exec(II): execute program file
fstat(II): status of open file
link(II): link to file
ln(I): link to file
set date modified of file...mdate(II):
mv(I): move or rename file
od(I): octal dump of file
open(II): open file
passwd(V): password file
read(II): read file
rm(I): remove (delete) file
sort(I): sort ASCII file
sum(I): sum file
find duplicate lines in a file...uniq(I):
unlink(II): remove (delete) file
write(II): write file
du(I): find disk usage
uniq(I): find duplicate lines in a file
df(I): find free disk space
hyphen(I): find hyphenated words
tty(I): find name of terminal
ttyn(III): find teletype name
typo(I): find typographic errors
un(I): find undefined symbols
fpe(II): catch floating exception errors
ftoa(III): convert floating to ASCII
ftoo(III): convert floating to octal
atof(III): convert ASCII to floating
fork(II): create new process
fed(I): form letter editor
forml(I): generate form letters
form(I): generate form letter
nroff(I): format text for printing
roff(I): format text for printing
directory(V): directory format
file system(V): file system format
tap(V): DECtape and magtape format
form(I): generate form letter
forml(I): generate form letters
fc(I): compile Fortran program
fpe(II): catch floating exception errors
df(I): find free disk space
fstat(II): status of open file
ftoa(III): convert floating to ASCII
ftoo(III): convert floating to octal
exp(III): exponential function
communicate with MH-TSS (GCOS)...tss(I):
gerts(III): communicate with GCOS
forml(I): generate form letters
form(I): generate form letter
vs(I): generate voice synthesizer phonemes
pseudo random number generator...rand(III):
gerts(III): communicate with GCOS
getc(III): get character
acct(VIII): get connect-time accounting
date(I): get date and time of day
wc(I): get (English) word count
size(I): get executable program size
times(II): get execution times
stat(I): get file status
stat(II): get file status
ps(VIII): get process status
time(I): get time information
time(II): get time of year
gtty(II): get typewriter mode
getuid(II): get user ID
getc(III): get character
getty(VII): adapt to typewriter
getuid(II): get user ID
glob(VII): argument expander
goto(I): command transfer
greek(VII): extended TTY 37 typebox map
gtty(II): get typewriter mode
pr(I): print file with headings
verify directory hierarchy...dcheck(VIII):
hyphen(I): find hyphenated words
hyphen(I): find hyphenated words
hypot(III): compute hypotenuse
hypot(III): compute hypotenuse
clri(VIII): clear file's i-node
istat(VIII): file status by i-number
getuid(II): get user ID
setuid(II): set user ID
if(I): conditional command
ilgins(II): catch illegal instruction trap
ilgins(II): catch illegal instruction trap
core(V): core image file
uniq(I): find duplicate lines in a file
ptx(VI): permuted index
time(I): get time information
utmp(V): logged-in user information
intr(II): catch or inhibit interrupts
quit(II): inhibit quits
init(VII): initializer process
init(VII): initializer process
ilgins(II): catch illegal instruction trap
itoa(III): convert integer to ASCII
atoi(III): convert ASCII to integer
pipe(II): open inter process channel
dsw(I): delete files interactively
sh(I): command interpreter
intr(II): catch or inhibit interrupts
split(I): break a file into pieces
intr(II): catch or inhibit interrupts
istat(VIII): file status by i-number
itoa(III): convert integer to ASCII
encrypt according to a keyword...crypt(III):
kill(II): destroy process
kill(VIII): terminate a process
kl(IV): console typewriter
:(I): place label
ld(I): link editor (loader)
fed(I): form letter editor
forml(I): generate form letters
form(I): generate form letter
uniq(I): find duplicate lines in a file
ld(I): link editor (loader)
link(II): link to file
ln(I): link to file
link(II): link to file
ls(I): list contents of directory
nlist(III): read name list
ln(I): link to file
dli(VIII): load DEC binary paper tapes
a.out(V): assembler and loader output
ld(I): link editor (loader)
login(I): log on to system
log(III): logarithm base e
utmp(V): logged-in user information
log(III): logarithm base e
passwd(I): set login password
login(I): log on to system
nice(II): set low-priority status
ls(I): list contents of directory
m6(I): macroprocessor
m6(I): macroprocessor
tap(V): DECtape and magtape format
mt(I): save, restore files on magtape
tm 9-track magtape
mail(I): send mail to another user
mail(I): send mail to another user
makdir(II): create directory
man(I): run off manual section
man(I): run off manual section
ascii(VII): map of ASCII
extended TTY 37 typebox map...greek(VII):
mdate(II): set date modified of file
mem(IV): core memory
mem(IV): core memory
mesg(I): permit or deny messages
mesg(III): print string on typewriter
mesg(I): permit or deny messages
tss(I): communicate with MH-TSS (GCOS)
msh(VII): mini Shell
mkdir(I): create directory
chmod(I): change access mode of files
chmod(II): change mode of file
stty(II): set mode of typewriter
stty(I): set typewriter modes
gtty(II): get typewriter mode
mdate(II): set date modified of file
mount(II): mount file system
mount(VIII): mount removable file system
mount(II): mount file system
mount(VIII): mount removable file system
mv(I): move or rename file
seek(II): move read or write pointer
msh(VII): mini Shell
mt(I): save, restore files on magtape
mv(I): move or rename file
nlist(III): read name list
tty(I): find name of terminal
nm(I): print namelist
ttyn(III): find teletype name
fork(II): create new process
nice(II): set low-priority status
nlist(III): read name list
nm(I): print namelist
nroff(I): format text for printing
rand(III): pseudo random number generator
pow(III): take powers of numbers
factor(I): factor a number
reloc(I): relocate object files
od(I): octal dump of file
convert floating to octal...ftoo(III):
od(I): octal dump of file
man(I): run off manual section
opr(I): print file off-line
close(II): close open file
dup(II): duplicate an open file
fstat(II): status of open file
open(II): open file
pipe(II): open inter process channel
open(II): open file
opr(I): print file off-line
cat(I): concatenate (or print) files
ecvt(III): edited output conversion
assembler and loader output...a.out(V):
ov(I): page overlay file print
ov(I): page overlay file print
chown(I): change owner of files
chown(II): change owner of file
ov(I): page overlay file print
type(I): print file page-by-page
dli(VIII): load DEC binary paper tapes
pc(IV): punched paper tape
passwd(I): set login password
passwd(V): password file
passwd(V): password file
passwd(I): set login password
pc(IV): punched paper tape
mesg(I): permit or deny messages
ptx(VI): permuted index
generate voice synthesizer phonemes...vs(I):
vsp(VII): voice synthesizer phonemes
display character on Picturephone...ddsput(III):
split(I): break a file into pieces
pipe(II): open inter process channel
:(I): place label
seek(II): move read or write pointer
pow(III): take powers of numbers
pow(III): take powers of numbers
pr(I): print file with headings
echo(I): print command arguments
opr(I): print file off-line
type(I): print file page-by-page
pr(I): print file with headings
nm(I): print namelist
mesg(III): print string on typewriter
ptime(III): print time
cat(I): concatenate (or print) files
nroff(I): format text for printing
roff(I): format text for printing
ov(I): page overlay file print
bproc(VIII): boot procedure
pipe(II): open inter process channel
ps(VIII): get process status
rele(II): release processor
fork(II): create new process
init(VII): initializer process
kill(II): destroy process
kill(VIII): terminate a process
wait(II): wait for process
break(II): set program break
exec(II): execute program file
size(I): get executable program size
bc(VI): compile B program
cc(I): compile C program
fc(I): compile Fortran program
sno(I): compile Snobol program
tmg(I): compile tmgl program
proof(I): compare text files
rand(III): pseudo random number generator
ps(VIII): get process status
ptime(III): print time
ptx(VI): permuted index
pc(IV): punched paper tape
putc(III): write character or word
qsort(III): quicker sort
qsort(III): quicker sort
quit(II): inhibit quits
quit(II): inhibit quits
rand(III): pseudo random number generator
rand(III): pseudo random number generator
read(II): read file
nlist(III): read name list
seek(II): move read or write pointer
csw(II): read the console switches
read(II): read file
20boot(VIII): reboot 11/20 system
boot(II): reboot the system
cref(I): cross reference table
rele(II): release processor
rele(II): release processor
reloc(I): relocate object files
strip(I): remove symbols, relocation bits
reloc(I): relocate object files
dc(IV): remote typewriter
mount(VIII): mount removable file system
rmdir(I): remove (delete) directory
rm(I): remove (delete) file
unlink(II): remove (delete) file
strip(I): remove symbols, relocation bits
mv(I): move or rename file
salv(VIII): repair damaged file system
tap(I): save, restore files on DECtape
mt(I): save, restore files on magtape
rew(I): rewind DECtape
rew(I): rewind DECtape
rf(IV): RF disk
rf(IV): RF disk
rk(IV): RK disk
rk(IV): RK disk
rmdir(I): remove (delete) directory
rm(I): remove (delete) file
roff(I): format text for printing
sqrt(III): square root
man(I): run off manual section
salloc(III): storage allocator
salv(VIII): repair damaged file system
tap(I): save, restore files on DECtape
mt(I): save, restore files on magtape
man(I): run off manual section
seek(II): move read or write pointer
mail(I): send mail to another user
speak(I): send words to voice synthesizer
exit(I): end command sequence
mdate(II): set date modified of file
passwd(I): set login password
nice(II): set low-priority status
stty(II): set mode of typewriter
break(II): set program break
stime(II): set system time
tabs(VII): set tab stops on typewriter
stty(I): set typewriter modes
setuid(II): set user ID
setuid(II): set user ID
msh(VII): mini Shell
sh(I): command interpreter
sin(III): sine, cosine
sin(III): sine, cosine
size(I): get executable program size
get executable program size...size(I):
sleep(II): delay execution
sno(I): compile Snobol program
sno(I): compile Snobol program
sort(I): sort ASCII file
sort(I): sort ASCII file
string compare for sort...compar(III):
qsort(III): quicker sort
df(I): find free disk space
dpd(VII): spawn dataphone daemon
speak(I): send words to voice synthesizer
split(I): break a file into pieces
sqrt(III): square root
sqrt(III): square root
stat(I): get file status
stat(II): get file status
istat(VIII): file status by i-number
fstat(II): status of open file
nice(II): set low-priority status
ps(VIII): get process status
stat(I): get file status
stat(II): get file status
stime(II): set system time
tabs(VII): set tab stops on typewriter
salloc(III): storage allocator
vt(IV): storage-tube display
compar(III): string compare for sort
mesg(III): print string on typewriter
strip(I): remove symbols, relocation bits
stty(I): set typewriter modes
stty(II): set mode of typewriter
sum(I): sum file
sum(I): sum file
csw(II): read the console switches
switch(III): transfer depending on value
db(I): symbolic debugger
strip(I): remove symbols, relocation bits
un(I): find undefined symbols
sync(II): assure synchronization
sync(II): assure synchronization
vs(I): generate voice synthesizer phonemes
vsp(VII): voice synthesizer phonemes
speak(I): send words to voice synthesizer
file system(V): file system format
stime(II): set system time
chk(VIII): check all file systems
file system(V): file system format
20boot(VIII): reboot 11/20 system
boot(II): reboot the system
check consistency of file system...check(VIII):
login(I): log on to system
mount(II): mount file system
mount removable file system...mount(VIII):
repair damaged file system...salv(VIII):
umount(II): dismount file system
who(I): who is on the system
tabs(VII): set tab stops on typewriter
cref(I): cross reference table
tabs(VII): set tab stops on typewriter
pow(III): take powers of numbers
load DEC binary paper tapes...dli(VIII):
pc(IV): punched paper tape
tap(I): save, restore files on DECtape
tap(V): DECtape and magtape format
tc(IV): DECtape
ttyn(III): find teletype name
tty(I): find name of terminal
kill(VIII): terminate a process
exit(II): terminate execution
ed(I): text editor
proof(I): compare text files
nroff(I): format text for printing
roff(I): format text for printing
time(I): get time information
date(I): get date and time of day
time(II): get time of year
ctime(III): convert time to ASCII
time(I): get time information
time(II): get time of year
times(II): get execution times
times(II): get execution times
ptime(III): print time
stime(II): set system time
tm 9-track magtape
tmg(I): compile tmgl program
tmg(I): compile tmgl program
switch(III): transfer depending on value
goto(I): command transfer
cemt(II): catch EMT traps
catch illegal instruction trap...ilgins(II):
tss(I): communicate with MH-TSS (GCOS)
greek(VII): extended TTY 37 typebox map
tty(I): find name of terminal
ttyn(III): find teletype name
greek(VII): extended TTY 37 typebox map
type(I): print file page-by-page
stty(I): set typewriter modes
gtty(II): get typewriter mode
dc(IV): remote typewriter
getty(VII): adapt to typewriter
kl(IV): console typewriter
mesg(III): print string on typewriter
stty(II): set mode of typewriter
tabs(VII): set tab stops on typewriter
typo(I): find typographic errors
typo(I): find typographic errors
umount(II): dismount file system
un(I): find undefined symbols
un(I): find undefined symbols
uniq(I): find duplicate lines in a file
unlink(II): remove (delete) file
du(I): find disk usage
getuid(II): get user ID
setuid(II): set user ID
utmp(V): logged-in user information
mail(I): send mail to another user
write(I): write to another user
utmp(V): logged-in user information
transfer depending on value...switch(III):
dcheck(VIII): verify directory hierarchy
vs(I): generate voice synthesizer phonemes
vsp(VII): voice synthesizer phonemes
speak(I): send words to voice synthesizer
vs(I): generate voice synthesizer phonemes
vsp(VII): voice synthesizer phonemes
vt(IV): storage-tube display
wait(II): wait for process
wait(II): wait for process
wc(I): get (English) word count
who(I): who is on the system
who(I): who is on the system
gerts(III): communicate with GCOS
pr(I): print file with headings
tss(I): communicate with MH-TSS (GCOS)
wc(I): get (English) word count
speak(I): send words to voice synthesizer
hyphen(I): find hyphenated words
putc(III): write character or word
chdir(I): change working directory
chdir(II): change working directory
putc(III): write character or word
write(II): write file
seek(II): move read or write pointer
write(I): write to another user
write(I): write to another user
write(II): write file
wtmp(V): accounting files
yacc(VI): yet another compiler-compiler
time(II): get time of year
yacc(VI): yet another compiler-compiler